The advantages of ribosomes

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Ribosomes are a cellular structure that produces proteins. Protein is essential for many cellular functions, like damage repair or chemical process management. The free ribosomes may be located inside the cytoplasm or join the endoplasmic network. 

The ribosomes of the cell determine the type of protein that it produces. If the ribosome floats freely throughout the cell, it will produce proteins that are used inside the cell. When ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic network, they are referred to as the rough endoplasmic network or coarse ER. The proteins made in crude RE are used for intracellular or extracellular use. 

The function of the ribosome is the synthesis of proteins according to the directions of the RNA messenger. The ribosomes help in making proteins with several features in the cell and may be located within the endoplasmic or cytoplasm. 

The cells of the body and other animal cells contain many components that work together to improve the well-being of the cell. Mitochondria, for example, provide our cells with the necessary amount of energy compounds to perform their various functions. The cell nucleus contains DNA that cells use when they need to use genes to make proteins and regulate multiple systems in the body, like growth. 

Among the different ingredients of our cell is the ribosome. Ribosomes are suitable for protein synthesis. They are located as free molecules in the whole cell both in primordial cells, like bacteria and in eukaryotic cells, like us. They can also be located linked to the thick endoplasmic network because the rough ER also helps in the production and movement of proteins. It was also found in green mitochondria and plastids. 

Structure of ribosomes 

Ribosomes are composed of ribosome RNA and ribosome proteins. The proportion between the two components varies, since the nuclei of the nuclei are approximately 40% protein and 60% rRNA, while the eukaryotes may be divided between the two. 

Human ribosomes and other eukaryotic nuclei consist of four strains of rRNA, while bacterial ribosomes comprised of three strands of rRNA. These ribosomal RNAs are associated with the proteins that make up the entire structure of the ribosome. In eukaryotes, ribosomes enter the nucleus and are treated with rRNA to form a large subunit ribosome and a small subunit ribosome. The core pores are sent and converge to form the completed ribosome. 

Origin of ribosomes. 

Given the common denominators of ribosomes among all living cells, it is logical that the ribosome is a familiar ancestor moment between various spheres of life. 

The researchers analyzed several ribosomes in various species, looked for a common nucleus in the structure of the ribosome and identified the oldest parts of the ribosome. It should be noted that the ribosomes were like trunks: they possess rings which show the age, deep in the trunk, the inner circle shows the oldest part of the tree. 

Initially, the ribosome contained the only RNA and did not contain proteins because life at that time did not use proteins. When the RNA branches become large, they form secondary structures that can develop functions. The ribosome may have been in a similar situation. Over time, with the development of proteins, ribosomes become more complex and adapt to more tasks until they become specialized protein processing machines as they are today. 

The transfer of ribosomes from the RNA compound to the RNA and the protein compound was the result of the ability of RNA to generate peptides with increasing complexity. What began as a process to convert DNA into RNA became so complicated that it allowed the creation of other compounds of this information, which turned out to be proteins. The proteins are necessary for many cellular working, such as repairing the directing or damage chemical processes. The free ribosomes may be found inside the cytoplasm or join the endoplasmic network. 

The ribosomes of the cell determine the type of protein that it produces. If the ribosome floats freely throughout the cell, it will produce proteins that are used inside the cell. When the ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic network, they are known as the thick endoplasmic network. The proteins that are produced in the grid use thick endoplasma for intracellular or extracellular use. 

Ribosomes – The Lego Builders!

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Proteins are a chemical that we use to make the body work – they are involved in the making of something called an enzyme. Enzymes make body processes go faster – like how you would eat food so you could run instead of walk. We can get these proteins from food – the best place to find a protein is in meats like pork and beef, or in eggs and nuts. But we also have something in the body that makes proteins called a ribosome. 

Ribosomes are called protein synthesizers, or protein builders. Ribosomes can be found floating around in a cell, or they can be attached to the ER – the Endoplasmic Reticulum. The ER is just folded up sacs or tubes outside of the nucleus, or center, of the cell. 

But how does all of this work? If you need a protein, how is it made? And what does a ribosome have to do with it? 

Here’s where it starts to get interesting. In order for the ribosome to help put the proteins together, you first need to have something called mRNA. mRNA is like your DNA, the thing that makes your eyes and hair a certain color, that can tell you how tall you are going to be or if you’ll write with your left hand or your right. mRNA is a copy of your DNA that got made by the nucleus, the center part of every cell. The nucleus is like a computer and the DNA is instructions on the computer. In the DNA is instructions for how to make proteins, and once that is copied and sent out of the nucleus, it becomes mRNA. 

Like a computer with an email, the nucleus sends the mRNA – and thereby the instructions to make a protein – to the ribosomes. Here’s where the ribosomes become builders! 

You are a ribosome, and the nucleus, your teacher, just gave you a sheet of paper showing you how to make a house out of the legos. The sheet of paper is your mRNA, and you use that to make the house of legos, which is your protein. You can’t start making the house of legos until your teacher hands out all the instructions, but once that’s done you can make your lego house. But making a lego house is a little simpler than making a protein. 

Your legos are now something called an amino acid. Amino acids are the “building blocks” of a full protein – the legos that make up your full house. Amino acids are different, just like legos are. Some of them are different sizes and shapes, meaning they can’t always fit together. In this case, let’s pretend that only legos of certain colors can go together to make the right kind of house. You must use the mRNA, your instruction sheet, to find out which color of lego goes with another color. You can put yellow legos with blue legos, but not with red legos, and so on. 

But there’s another kind of RNA in that your teacher has. This RNA is called transfer RNA, or tRNA. tRNA is what keeps your amino acids in order in your cell. For this example, the tRNA is the bucket that all of your legos are in. You, as the ribosome, have to take your instructions, the mRNA, and go to the lego bucket to pick out all the legos – or amino acids – that you need to make your protein house. Once you’ve gotten your instructions from your teacher, looked over all them to find out how to build and what you need to get, gone to the bucket to retrieve the right number of pieces that you need for building, and returned, you can finally build your protein house! Once you’ve finished your protein house, you can connect it with the protein house someone else made, and then keep adding protein houses in a long chain until you’ve finally made your full protein. 

It takes a lot of pieces and working parts to make a protein with a ribosome, but the end product is a working protein that your body uses to function. Even one little ribosome can make a big difference in your body. 

Lysosomes – the Vacuums of the Cell

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Enzymes are a type of protein that can speed up a chemical reaction in the body. While the body can still do the process without the enzyme, it may not be able to do it in time. Enzymes are responsible for many things, like digesting food and turning it into the energy that we can use for moving and living – this is called metabolism. Once ribosomes have created proteins and they’ve become enzymes, there has to be a place to hold them in the cell until they are needed for a body process. That’s where lysosomes come in. 

If we remember ribosomes, we know they are on the ER or the Endoplasmic Reticulum. Once the ribosomes on the ER have created their proteins, the proteins get packaged up and sent to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is similar to the ER in that it is a bunch of folded up membranes and sacs. The difference between them is that while the ER is involved with ribosomes, the Golgi apparatus is responsible for making lysosomes. Once the proteins get to the Golgi apparatus, it makes them fully into enzymes and sends them, through lysosomes, out into the cell to begin their work. 

Lysosomes are like suitcases in a cell – they use a membrane, or layer that some things can get into and others cannot, to hold enzymes so they can stay safely hidden away until the body needs them. Lysosomes are also a bit like garbage disposals – using the enzymes they hold inside their membrane, lysosomes break down food when it needs to be digested or unneeded parts of the body when they aren’t of use anymore. 

Lysosomes prevent dead or unnecessary parts of cells, or even entire cells, from taking up space and causing problems for the body. If ribosomes were the construction workers of a cell, then the lysosomes could be considered the cleanup crew that comes after them and cleans up all the messes. Using the enzymes that come from the proteins that are created by ribosomes, they can work on digesting food, organelles, and old cells in the body. This is their only job, and while it seems like a simple one, it is very important and very specific. Not just any enzyme, or any lysosome, can do the job because food is very different from an organelle, and organelles are different from whole cells. 

There are different kinds of lysosomes for different kinds of digestion because of this. Mainly, there are lysosomes that digest food that enters the cell, lysosomes that digest organelles – a special structure in a cell that can perform a specific function, like the Golgi apparatus or the ribosomes – that are no longer needed in a cell, and lysosomes that digest cells that are no longer needed in the body and have to be gotten rid of. The lysosome attaches to the thing that it needs to digest, drags it into the lysosome, and releases the enzymes inside of it to break down whatever object the lysosome attached to once it is fully inside. 

Lysosomes can do this digestion because of the membrane mentioned earlier. Let’s say that a lysosome is a vacuum. Some vacuums, like lysosomes, are bigger or smaller, with different attachments, for use in different areas of a house. In this case, the house is your cell, and the messes in the house are the things that the lysosomes must digest, with the lysosome being the vacuum. With a vacuum, only certain things can fit inside it. If you tried to use a vacuum to pick up a football, it wouldn’t fit! But it might be able to pick up a balled-up piece of paper. This is because the membrane of a lysosome only lets certain things in and out of it, and is only used for a certain job because of this feature. A hand-held vacuum wouldn’t be able to clean a whole house, after all, but it may be great for cleaning a single chair. 

If the way a lysosome works is still hard to understand, that’s okay. A lot of what the membrane does can be understood best by learning about active and passive transport, a lesson that will be coming to you very soon. 

Functions of Vacuole

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One of the most important things to learn about when studying biology is the building blocks of every organism. Every living thing has these building blocks, but some are more advanced than others. Some building blocks are also more important than others. These building blocks are known as cells. 

Animals and plants are both made of cells, that help the organism work properly. Each cell has different parts all responsible for different little jobs inside the cell. One of these is a vacuole. What does the vacuole do is a question, and here is the answer. 

The first time scientists discovered vacuoles was in 1700s but they thought of them as breathing organs. A century later a term 'vacuole' was born. It might seem like an insignificant discovery, but it gave biologists a better understanding about the structure of cells and the work they do. No longer considered respiratory organs or called 'stars', vacuoles claimed their rightful place in the cell structure. 

Food and Water for Survival 

To put it simply - vacuoles are little storage pockets inside the cells. They store nutrients that helps the cell to survive. They exist in plants, fungi and also in animal cells. There are vacuoles in the cells of bacteria and even protists (organisms that are not animals, plants or fungi). Since they are little pockets, vacuoles are sealed tight and have liquid inside of them. 

Water that has organic and inorganic particles, such as enzymes. Sometimes they can contain solid mass that has been absorbed by the vacuole. The little pockets are created of several membrane structures through the transport of materials to and from the cell. The organelle - vacuole in this case, doesn't have a set shape, since it depends on the way the cell itself is shaped.

A vacuole can have different functions depending on the type of cell it lives in. Plants and fungi have an upper hand where vacuole presence is concerned. 

In general terms vacuoles are responsible for: 

- Storing water in plant cells

- Storing waste products so they don't harm the cell

- Sending unnecessary substances out of the cell itself

- Separation and isolation of harmful materials

- Making sure the pH level stays acidic 

However, there are other responsibilities a vacuole has depending on the cell. For example, in seeds, the vacuoles change so they can keep the protein needed for a successful germination of the seed. 

Vacuoles works as scaffolding for leaves and flowers in plants. Without these little pockets the plants would look very different, and would not have the structure we know and recognize. 

Animals Vs. Plants 

Animal cells although similar, have differences in their structure and the work they accomplish. Vacuoles take a secondary role and mainly support larger processes. 

It simply means that the process we know as digestion happens at a cell level and not just on the bigger scale. Both solid foods (through phagocytosis or cell eating) and liquid food groups (through pinocytosis or cell drinking) get absorbed by the cell which then breaks the food down. 

The vacuoles are smaller in animal cells, but there are more of them. Some cells lack vacuoles altogether but it's just their design. Animal cells also have food vacuoles that contain enzymes for breaking down different food groups. 

Other Notable Processes 

Since vacuoles are responsible for storage, it is important to mention two processes that happen inside the cell. These processes are similar for plants and animals but in animals the processes are more complex. 

Exocytosis pushes the lipids and proteins from the cell itself. These lipids and proteins are then absorbed by other parts of the body. It means the cell also helps the transportation of the different nutrients as well as the waste that is now broken down and can then be excreted out of the body. 

The other process is endocytosis (taking in of matter) and it is the opposite of exocytosis (transporting matter out). Bacteria, dead tissue or other materials collide with the cell walls and the cell then absorbs them This way the material inside the cell breaks down slowly and doesn't harm the cell or the organism itself. 

Side Note - Salmonella 

Even though cells are pretty good at protecting the organisms, some pathogens evolve over time. Salmonella is one of these crafty little bacteria that can survive inside a vacuole despite its best efforts. It causes illness in humans, and can also be devastating to domestic animal farmers. The bacteria acquires genetic elements or simply - knowledge and understanding from different sources, and uses them to survive and adapt. This way whatever means the cell uses to protect itself fail. It's like fighting fire with fire. 

Salmonella is treated with medication in both humans and animals. For people one of the most important things is making sure the body is hydrated enough, and if the case is severe - there might be a call for a hospital stay. A dose of antibiotics is the administered as well as a course of anti-diarrhoea medication. 

Functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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INTRODUCTION 

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle. It is also called the smooth ER. This organelle is found in both plant and the animal cells. It is however absent in prokaryotic cells. Organelles are simply subunits of cells. They carry out some unique functions. 

This organelle is a network of membranes. These membranes have tubules and flattened sacs. In its interior, is a space called the lumen. It is found throughout the cell. A connection exists between it and the nucleus. It serves several purposes in the cell. We are going to examine some of them below. 

FUNCTIONS OF SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM 

The exact role of the smooth ER varies from cell to cell. The following are some of its main roles: 

Manufacturing and Packaging Cellular Products 

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum manufactures and packages cellular products. These are mostly lipids and hormones. Lipids form the structural component of cells. They do so in conjunction with carbohydrates and proteins. Its manufacture is hence great for the entire body. 

Hormones stimulate cells and tissues into action. They contain some ‘coded instructions’ in them. They prevent the body from getting mixed up. In most cases, they are transported via blood or sap. They come in different kinds and forms. This means they are suited for different functions. Your body cannot do without them. 

Transportation of Proteins and Carbohydrates 

They also transport carbohydrates and proteins. It relays them to the other organelles. Examples of these are plasma membrane, Golgi body, and lysosomes. These substances pass through their lumens. In so doing, they guarantee the smooth functioning of the cell. Any breakdowns in them may often cause certain issues. 

To do this role well, they require some energy. This energy is supplied by another organelle. The organelle is called a mitochondrion. This energy is called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Such transportation increases the efficiency of the cell. It also boosts the health of the body. 

Expedites Cellular Reactions 

Most chemical reactions occur in the cell. Yet again, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum expedites them. As stated, this organelle comprises some tubules. These tubules are located at the edge of the cell. They increase the surface area. This, in turn, improves the pace of reaction of the cell. 

Chances of producing poor outcomes are heavily suppressed. Instead, the cell enjoys better health and outcomes all the time. Apart from this, the tubules stores some key enzymes. These enzymes are used in future reactions. They mainly catalyze the reactions for greater outcomes. 

Formation of Nuclear Membranes 

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum forms nuclear membranes. This happens during cell division. The nuclear membrane encloses the contents of the nucleus. These include the nucleolus, DNA, and nucleoplasm, among others. This enclosure shields the contents from the cytoplasm. It hence preserves the integrity of the cell. 

Steroid Synthesis 

Steroids are substances in the body. They perform a range of functions. Mostly, they build muscles and add strength to the body. Examples are cholesterols, testosterone, progesterone, glycogen, and proteins. The smooth ER, yet again, produces them. It hence contributes to the proper functioning of the body. Also, it makes the bodybuilding exercise, a breeze. 

Attachment of Receptors 

Receptors are responsive cells. They can respond to heat, light, or external stimuli. They also transmit signals. For them to function, they have to be attached. In most cases, they are attached to cell membrane proteins. These are structures that constitute the cell membrane. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum performs this role, yet again. You hence become more responsive, when this organelle performs well. 

Coordinates Cellular Activities 

As stated, cells have numerous organelles. For these organelles to work well, they have to be coordinated. Failure to do so might often lead to chaos. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does this job well. It works hand in hand with most organelles. These include the Golgi apparatus, mRNA, ribosomes, and tRNA. In so doing, it prevents them from breaking down. 

Carbohydrate Metabolism 

It can also metabolize carbohydrates. This means breaking down carbohydrate to its constituent parts. The end result is some easier absorption. It is able to do so because it has some enzymes. These accelerate cellular reactions. It is these reactions that dismantle the carbohydrate building blocks. 

Regulates Calcium Concentration 

This organelle performs different roles in different cells. While in the muscles, it regulates the concentration of Calcium ion. Higher levels of calcium ion are not good for the muscles. It stiffens them and makes the immobile. Reduced levels allow the muscles to relax. It also tones them appropriately. 

Drug Detoxification 

Lastly, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum detoxifies the body. It breaks down some harmful drugs. Chief among these are the lipid-soluble drugs. Also, it diminishes some harmful compounds in the body. The organelle hence helps with addictions. At the same time, it shields your body from intoxication. 

CONCLUSION 

As you may see, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is great for your body. It plays many roles at a time. You have to thank it for most of your health benefits. Did you find this conversation helpful? Would you recommend it for a friend? Let us hear in the comment segment below… 

Function of the mitochondria

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The mitochondrion is an important organelle of both plants and animals cells. It is one of those organelles in a eukaryotic cell. Usually, the mitochondria are usually referred to as powerhouse to a cell because they produce energy in Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) form. Usually energy is produced during cellular respiration. Mitochondrion is made of two membranes: inner and outer, where chemical reactions occur and a matrix where some fluid is stored. This mitochondrion takes in nutrients from cells so as to break them down and release energy in turn. This energy in form of ATP is therefore used for carrying out several functions inside a cell. 

Different cells contain varied numbers of the mitochondria. This number is determined by the much energy that given cell mainly requires. If a cell needs more energy, it will definitely have more of the mitochondria. The cell is able to produce additional mitochondria if it needs more of them. As well, a cell can combine various mitochondria so as to come up with larger mitochondria. 

Mitochondria can be defined as the powerhouse a cell depends on. These are small kind of structures found inside the cell and are composed of a matrix and two membranes. The matrix is responsible for holding some fluid while the membranes allow occurrence of chemical reactions. Mitochondria form part of the eukaryotic cells. Majorly, the mitochondria in a cell are responsible of performing cellular respiration. What this means is that the powerhouse takes nutrients from that cell then breaks those nutrients down so as to produce energy. That energy is all what a cell needs so as to run its normal functions. 

Apart from production of energy, other functions of mitochondria include breaking down the harmful waste products to less harmful substances, producing chemicals that the body needs and also the recycling of some waste products. They also help in death of cells. This process is also known as apoptosis. Apoptosis is crucial for both growth and development to take place. The death of some cells ensures that cells do not replicate uncontrollably leading to cancers. This means that mitochondria are targets of the anti-cancer drugs. To convert the food substances to energy, mitochondria require oxygen, in a process called oxidative phosphorylation. 

The processes that work together to produce ATP in a mitochondrion are generally referred to as Kreb's cycle or else Citric Acid cycle (TCA). Before citric acid cycle begins, glycolysis happens inside outer membrane. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate. Cellular respiration or aerobic respiration in mitochondrion is dependent on oxygen. However, in some cells which mostly lack mitochondria, glycolytic products are usually metabolized in absence of oxygen, a process called anaerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration produces a low yield of ATP as compared to aerobic respiration. 

The two molecules of pyruvate and ATP produced by glycolysis enter inside inner membrane of a mitochondrion. For matrix, pyruvate molecules are either carboxylated to form oxaloacetate, an anaplerotic reaction, or those molecules can be oxidized to form carbon dioxide, acetyl-CoA, and NADH. From acetyl-CoA, various intermediates are produced and they include citrate, isocitrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, oxaloacetate and malate. The oxaloacetate then will combine with acetyl-CoA to for citric acid. Numbers of ATPs produced depends on which molecule starts. For instance, The number of ATPs produced by breaking down of glucose is not similar as that produced during fructose breakdown. 

TCA cycle oxidizes acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and other reduced co-factors which are NADH (three molecules) and FADH2 (one molecule). These reduced cofactors are used in following stage of ATP production in mitochondrion which is called electron transport chain. Electrons transport chain occurs in mitochondrial intermembrane space. The process involves transferring of electrons from donors to acceptors through redox reactions. The electron transfer is followed with transferring of protons across membranes. 

NADH and FADH2 are also produced during glycolysis and TCA cycle, but they produce energy during electron transport chain process. Important protein complexes exist inside mitochondrial inner membrane and they include NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone), cytochrome c reductase, and cytochrome c oxidase. These complexes are responsible for transfer of electrons and released energy is used to pump H+ protons into mitochondrial intermembrane space. 

An electrochemical gradient is created against inner membrane when number of protons increases. The protons then return to matrix and their energy is used to combine Adenosine triphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate to form ATP. Therefore, glycolysis, TCA cycle, and electron transport chain are processes that occur inside mitochondrion to produce energy for cell activities. 

Biology for Kids: Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Function

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What is Endoplasmic Reticulum? 

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is an organelle inside the cytoplasm of an eukaryotic cell that has a network of tubules in it. Ribosomes are usually attached or involved in protein and lipid synthesis. Often, ER worked with Golgi apparatus (which takes packages and applies changes and transports it when necessary) and ribosomes. (Structure in cell that makes protein) 

What is Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum? 

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum(RER) is a flat endoplasmic reticulum that had ribosomes attached to its outside surface. It belongs to a continuous membrane, the nuclear envelope surrounding the cell nucleus, and it’s name comes from the ribosomes covering it. What sets RER aside from the other ER, “Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)” is that the SER has a smooth service and is in the shape of a tube. (It takes part in storing lipids) 

The ribosomes that connect to the RER known as, “membrane bound ribosomes.” This is because they attach to the outside of the ER on the cytosolic side firmly. In a liver cell alone, An average RER has around thirteen million ribosomes attached to it. 

What does Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Do? 

RER is an essential part of the process of making protein. It takes part in folding protein as well as quality control, and finally dispatch. Endoplasmic reticulum occurs in not only humans, but in animals and plants as a site for making lipids and proteins. Those proteins are then sent to other organelles in the body. 

 Membrane bound ribosomes play a major role in maging protein. They are responsible for any assembly of the proteins. In the pancreas and digestive trap, a high amount of protein preduced as Enzymes. When the rough ER works with membrane bound ribosomes, they take polypeptides as well as amino acids from cytosol and continue to assemble protein. This includes recognizing a destination at an early stage. 

Proteins are made for a few organelles, including; Lysosomes, endosome, Plant vacuoles, plasma membrane, the Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, and even the Endoplasmic Reticulum itself. For the ER, proteins are delivered to the lumen. There, sugar groups are added to some proteins in the lumen which then form, glycoproteins.Other proteins, have metal groups added. 

From Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum to Golgi Apparatus 

For the most part, proteins are transferred to the Golgi apparatus. There it will be ”finished” and sent to set locations in the body. ER occurs in all the cell, but the closer to the nucleus or Golgi apparatus it is, the higher the density. 

The Golgi Apparatus and ER are close to each other, enough that observations show chemicals produced most likely directly pass to one another, and not going through the vestibules to transport to the cytoplasm. 

Protein Synthesis 

The process of protein synthesis begins by translation. This is when the protein is made from RNA as it grows. Depending on if it has a signal sequence at the end of its terminal or not, it binds to a signal recognition particle. This carries the ribosome to the RER membrane. After being bound, the signal recognition particle dissociates and does one of two things; it embeds into the RER Membrane or transmitted into the a lumen for the RER. 

In the lumen, proteins are modified a bit in various ways, like having signal sequences removed and glycosylation (The process in which oligosaccharides is added and produces a glycoprotein), the form of the protein may also change. 

From the RER, the molecule takes its three-dimensional conformation, from their proteins in the lumen move to a transitional region that most need ribosomes. Some proteins, secretory proteins come from sells which then are packed in vesicles and sent to the Golgi apparatus. Others stay in the ER to do their assigned jobs. 

The folding process of proteins in the Endoplasmic Reticulum to make important biochemical architecture. This provides “lock and key” as well as other linking sites. 

Also found in the lumen, there is a quality control checking process. Any proteins during the check that are found formed or folded wrong are denied. Those proteins are instead stored in the lumen or they are sent to be recycled and broken down into amino acids. Whenever a protein folds in a ay it shouldn’t, it's usually the result of faulty genetic coding. 

When there is something abnormal about the structure or function of an RER, it associates with certain diseases in people. Mostly, the excess of proteins in the RER that were not returned to the cytosol to be degraded. This brings stress, causing cell dysfunction, and cell death. 

An In-depth Overview of the Cell Membrane

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What does the cell membrane do? Any idea as to some of the key functions of the cell membrane? Find out in a brief. 

The cell membrane can be defined as the semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell. The lipid bi-layer that encloses the cell performs several vital functions we are going to discuss in a bit. But for now, let us look at the cell membrane structure to help us understand the functions of this thin sheet of tissue. 

The Cell Membrane Structure 

It goes without saying that the cell membrane tissue is composed of four different types of molecules: 

1. Lipids—lipids can make up anywhere between 20 and 80 percent of the membrane. The rest is cholesterol, carbohydrates as well as microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). Lipids help to give the cell membrane its flexibility, which is vital for its functions. 

Phospholipids are a special type of lipids that are extremely important for the membrane. These lipids feature hydrophilic head areas and hydrophobic tail areas. (Hydrophilic means attracted to water whereas hydrophobic means repelled by water). 

Nonetheless, the lipids work by forming a lipid bi-layer whereby their head areas spontaneously arrange to face the aqueous cytosol (the fluid found inside the cell) and the extracellular(outside of the cell) fluid. On the other hand, their tail areas face away from the cytosol and extracellular fluid. It should be noted that the semi-permeable bi-layer allows only certain molecules to diffuse across the membrane. 

Additionally, the lipid component also contains cholesterol and glycolipids molecules whose primary functions are to protect the cell membrane from becoming stiff and enable the cell to recognize other fellow cells of the body. 

2. Proteins—the cell membrane has two types of proteins; 

• Peripheral membrane proteins.

• Integral membrane proteins. 

The former are exterior to the membrane and hooked to it by way of interaction with other proteins. On the other hand, the latter are planted into the membrane and most pass through the membrane with portions of them exposed on both sides of it. 

Peripheral and integral proteins perform important functions. These including monitoring and maintaining the chemical environment of the cell, helping in the transfer of molecules across the membrane and giving it a structural support. 

What Does the cell membrane Do? 

The tissue plays two primary roles: 

1. It acts as the cell’s physical barrier, barring substances that could get into the interior of the cell to cause damage. 

2. The cell membrane controls the process of the exchange of materials with the external environment. This is extremely crucial since some substances could easily disrupt things, causing a lot of problems as a result. 

Cell membrane Disorders 

Can the cell membrane be affected by any diseases? Of course, yes. The membrane is prone to any disease that may compromise the integrity of the cell. One common cell membrane disorder is cystic fibrosis. 

This is a genetic disorder that affects the cell’s integrity by interfering with its ability to secret sufficient water. When it occurs in the lung cells, the mucus becomes extremely thick. Consequently, the patient will suffer from a wide variety of symptoms including but not limited to wheezing, breathing with a difficulty, exercise intolerance, and persistent cough. N addition, they become susceptible to infection due to excessive mucus build up. If not treated properly, this could result in a loss of life. 

Treatment Options 

• Administration of antibiotics to treat and prevent chest infections.

• Administration of drugs to reduce the mucus thickness and ease the cough up.

• Administration of drugs to expand the airways and reduce inflammation.

• Application of special techniques using certain devices to help eliminate mucus from the lungs.

• A lung transplant operation, especially if the organs have become severely damaged. 

Final Thoughts 

It is my hope that now you understand what the cell membrane really is, including its structures plus the primary roles it plays. Finally, I believe you are now aware of one of the common cell membrane disorders and the possible treatment options available. It is important to note, however, that most cell membrane diseases are genetically passed down from a parent to a child. Without nothing more to add, this article comes to an end. 

An In-depth Look at the Endoplasmic Reticulum

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Hello learner! It is nice to have your attention to basic biology once again. Today I want to teach you about a very crucial organelle in the cells of all living things called endoplasmic reticulum. First though, I hope you know what an organelle is. If not, this is simply an organized or specialized structure within a living cell. I hope this is not beginning to sound too technical and above your level. My intention is to keep it pretty simple and straightforward without deviating from basic in biology. So, without further ado, let us get started with the definition of the endoplasmic reticulum. 

What Is Endoplasmic Reticulum? 

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an important type of organelle found in eukaryotic cells that forms an interconnected network of tube-like structures called cisternae. Eukaryotic cells are simply those whose nucleus is enclosed within as opposed to outside the membranes(prokaryotic cells). 

There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum i.e smooth ER and rough ER. The former lacks microorganic particles consisting of ribonucleic acid(RNA) and associated proteins, known as "ribosomes". RNA is simply a nucleic acid present in all living cells, which acts as a chemical messenger carrying instructions DNA instructions in the process of protein synthesis. In addition, smooth ER functions in lipid synthesis but not metabolism, detoxification or the production of steroid hormones. 

The rough ER, on the other hand, contains ribosomes in the outer surface for protein synthesis. That is the primary difference between the two types of ERs. 

It goes without saying that endoplasmic reticulum is present in almost every type of eukaryotic cell except sperm cells as well as red blood cells. 

Functions of the Endoplasmic Reticulum 

What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum? This is a common exam question for learners who are studying basic biology. Who knows, it could even feature in your next paper. Therefore, I want you to be extremely focused and attentive for the next part of this article. 

The endoplasmic reticulum plays an important role in keeping you alive and serves many general functions essential for the cell. These functions include the folding of protein molecules in sacs known as "cisternae" and the transport of synthesized proteins in special vessels called "vesicles" to the Golgi complex/apparatus. The Golgi Apparatus then processes the semi-finished proteins and finalizes them, before releasing them to the body. 

Endomembrane System Dysfunction 

Just like organs, organelles can deteriorate in health and eventually become dysfunctional. A dysfunctional endomembrane system comprising of unhealthy endoplasmic reticuli can lead to a wide variety of neurological disorders. These include Alzheimer's disease, sleep apnoea, cerebral ischemia, multiple sclerosis, the prion diseases, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy, and familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies (FENIB). If not addressed in time, some of these neurological disorders can lead to serious problems such as temporary/permanent madness, blindness, and deafness. Stroke is another potential threat. 

It is my hope that you now understand what the endoplasmic reticulum is and the primary function it serves. What does the endoplasmic reticulum do? It transports semi-processed protein molecules to the Golgi complex for final processing before they are released to the body. The membrane system, which controls the ER and the Golgi apparatus can deteriorate in health and become dysfunctional. If that happens, a number of neurological health conditions can occur, needing immediate attention. Some of these disorders, if not addressed in time, can lead to serious effects like madness, blindness, deafness and even stroke. 

What You Have Learned 

• There are two types of endoplasmic reticuli; smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough endoplasmic reticulum.

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes but rough endoplasmic reticulum contains ribosomes. 

• Ribosomes are microscopic particles that contain ribonucleic acid(RNA). 

• RNA act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the process of protein synthesis. 

• The endoplasmic reticulum is present in every eukaryotic cell except sperm cells as well as red blood cells. 

• The primary functions of the endoplasmic reticulum are to fold synthesized protein molecules and transport them to the Golgi complex/apparatus for processing before being released to the body. 

• The job of the Golgi Apparatus is to process and finalize semi-finished proteins and then release them to the body. 

9 Main Functions of Golgi Bodies

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Golgi bodies commonly referred to as Golgi apparatus are specialized structures within the cell that handle specific roles and assist the cell to function. These organelles, which form a considerable part of the cell’s endomembrane system, are mostly found in eukaryotic cells. Like any other organelle, the Golgi complex carries various functions within the cell, some of which have been discussed below. 

1. Absorption of Compounds 

Golgi bodies are connected with storage and absorption lipids, which help them to form an essential part of the absorption system within the cell. They help in absorbing complex compounds such as sugar. According to Hirsch, the Golgi complex also helps in the absorption of pure elements such as copper and gold, which are essential metals in the body. Additionally, Golgi bodies help in removal of water from various products, especially during the formation of secretory granules. 

2. Help in Enzyme Formation 

Golgi complex is responsible for the formation of most of the enzymes in the cells and other areas that breakdown food into its constituent components. Enzymes are biological catalysts that support chemical reactions in the cells. Most of these biological reactions take place in various parts of the body such as mouth, stomach, and the small intestines. Pancreatic digestive enzymes such as pancreatic amylase are produced by Golgi and then released into pancreatic ducts. 

3. Formation of Secretion and Secretory Vesicles 

Besides being involved in multiple cell functions, the primary role of Golgi is secretion. Movement of materials from one place of the cell to the other is an important role that must be guided by specialized cell organelles. Golgi complex forms secretory vesicles which are used as the medium for secretions. Most of the secretions, especially those from the rough endoplasmic reticulum, move through Golgi apparatus and finally through the plasma membrane to the adjacent cells. 

4. Production of Hormones 

Hormones are chemical secretions from the cell that help to trigger the performance of various body tissues and organs to react in a particular way. Like other secretions, hormones are produced by Golgi apparatus. This is an indication that any disturbance of Golgi could lead to low enzyme production, which could be catastrophic. 

5. Formation of Intracellular Crystals 

Within the cells, there are multiple crystals which are components of secretions and provide a conducive medium for chemical reactions. These crystals contain large quantities of iron and proteins and are formed by Golgi bodies. Most of these crystals do not have an enclosing membrane. They also play a significant role in secretory activities. 

6. Formation of Plant Cell Wall 

Golgi bodies play a secondary role in the formation of plant cell walls. They synthesize all polysaccharides within the plant cells, which are the major components of the cell wall. Microfibrils, hemicelluloses, and pectin are synthesized by Golgi apparatus and then packed in vesicles for secretions. These materials are later released through secretion to the cell wall where they are major components. 

Golgi is also involved in mitotic cell division where they form a cell plate. Through secretion and deposition of hemicelluloses and pectic substances, the cell plate is thickened and enlarged and later deposited on the outermost part of the plant cell as the cellulose cell wall. 

7. Glycoproteins Secretions 

Like other proteins, glycoproteins are formed by the Golgi complex. Most of the protein products are attached to carbohydrates to form highly concentrated protein components. Concentrated protein products are stored on the edge of Golgi bodies after which they will be released through secretions on a need basis. 

8. Storage of Protein 

Vesicles and vacuoles are the major components of the Golgi complex, and they act as the major storage areas for proteins and other lipids. Protein or lipids synthesized within the cell are all stored by Golgi, and they are later used in secretions. 

9. Formation of Milk Protein Droplets 

This does not occur in the cells of most animals but occurs in mammary glands of lactating mice. Most of the proteins produced are highly related to the Golgi complex. The milk droplets open on the cell surface by fusion and enter the cell through the plasma membrane. 

Like other important cell organelles, Golgi bodies are very important because they handle complex roles within the cell. Secretion, which is their main role, almost controls all functions of the cell. Other important roles of the Golgi complex include the formation of acrosomes among other functions.