What do lysosomes do?

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What are Lysosomes?

Lysosomes are known to be the digestive system body cell. They are sac-like structures that hold enzymes which help in the digesting of materials are foreign in the body. Also called suicide bags, these organelles are breaking down and digesting damaged and worn-out cells. 

Definition: Lysosomes are animal cell organelles which are membrane-bound. They possess a phospholipid bilayer on its single outer membrane. The bi-phospholipid layer has one half that avoids water – hydrophobic the other half loves water- hydrophilic. The membrane has enzymes and acids that can decompose and digest macromolecules. 

Creation of Lysosomes 

The lysosomes are made by organelles known as Golgi Bodies or Apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is mostly found in eukaryotic cells. The body of the Golgi apparatus makes vesicles, which bud from the organelle and become the main lysosomes. Secondary lysosomes can also be made through a process called fusion. The fusion process involves combining of vesicles with primary lysosomes in the cell membrane to make secondary lysosomes. 

Lysosomes Structure 

• The outer layer has a single membrane and bi-phospholipid layer which can fuse with different organelles that are membrane-bound.

• It has a spherical shaped structure with a one-micrometre diameter.

• In one lysosome, you can find several enzyme molecules.

• Acid hydrolases which are lysosomes enzymes work best in an acidic environment. The cytosol is an intracellular fluid which surrounds organelles. 

Main advantages of lysosomes 

The general function of lysosomal particles is to break down or break down large molecules. That involves treating worn out and old parts of the cell to recycle its components and make harmful bacteria or toxins safe by breaking them. They process many holes that move inside or outside the cell, which guarantees trouble-free operation. Lysosomes are basically waste disposal units or cell recycling in this sense. 

Self-accusation refers to how the material is divided or digested within the cell. The organelles within the cell fade with time, and when they erode, the lysosome is destroyed, so that the large molecules that make it up can be used to create structures and other organisms. The structures called phagocytes are created, which encapsulate the material to be decomposed. 

The fundamental particles bind to the lysosome fusing them with the lysosome membrane. After this, the pharynx is divided into oneself. While self-involvement refers to the process that leads to the degradation of substances within the cell, the pharynx involves the digestion of contents outside the body of the cell. 

The cellular output is how the cellular material is left via the cell membrane. Energy from the ATP is applied to transfer content that contains an extracellular space. The lysosomes responsible for this process are called secretory lysosomes. 

Gaps that contain a variety of different substances are found outside the cell, and once the cell membrane is absorbed via the cell membrane, it fuses with the gaps and begins to digest them. The extracellular cavities can contain a variety of different compounds. For example, white blood cells are types of macrophages. The cells protect the body of the invaders, killing harmful bacteria or substances. 

Bio-synthesis, the process by which materials are recycled for later use, is mainly done in particles. Lysosomes also destroy dead cells, where their large molecules are collected to produce new organs and cells, in a process known as self-degradation. 

Homogeneous grafts can also include pumpkin and core processes. The hippocampal process is how cells absorb the extracellular fluid and play an essential role in the immune system because it allows immunological monitoring. Endocytosis is how cells can take molecules connected to the outer cell. It is an active form of transport, and cells are disseminated to absorb extracellular molecules. The digested particles are sent to the lysosomes to destroy them. 

Lysosomes defects 

Because lysosomes are an integral part of cell health, they can break down the material and create new ones outside of the elements. Malfunction of lysosomes can lead to problems such as the accumulation of excess sugars or fat. Lysosomal storage disorders generally cause defective genes, and children can inherit one or both faulty genes from their parents. 

Lysosomal storage diseases can kill cells with time, affecting the working of many various organs. Lysosomes are very important for cellular health. If the cell does not contain the lysosomes, it will not be able to break down the components of the old and dead cells, and will not be able to digest and break down the proteins. For these reasons, animal cells depend on their lysosomes. 

Transportation in a Cell – Cars and Crosswalks

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Now that most of what a cell does has been discussed, you can learn how things move into and out of a cell. After all, if just anything can get into and out of a cell membrane – the flexible wall that is used to created a border between a cell and what is outside of it – then there would be no point in having a membrane at all. Think of the membrane of a cell like the screen door of a home. It lets air throw a house, but it keeps bugs and small animals from getting in the house without having to have a big heavy door closed all the time. The membrane does something similar for a cell in an effort to balance what is inside and outside of it, but what passes in and out of the membrane isn’t as easy as air. Because of this, we have two different types of transport that allow something to get through a cell membrane. These types of transport are called active transport and passive transport. 

Active transport, as its name suggests, means that it is a type of transport that requires energy. Instead of being able to pass through the cell membrane easily and without effort, things that use active transport need a bit of help getting through because they are too big or complex to fit through the natural channels, or small open spaces, in a membrane. The membrane of a cell is made up of layers of proteins and phospholipids. Phospholipids are lipids, or fats, with phosphate attached to them. The proteins in the membrane of a cell are important in active transport because they are what helps move objects through the membrane in active transport. 

Thinking of these proteins like a car crossing a street will help us understand active transport. The battery of the car is the energy, and the protein is the car itself. The passenger in the car is the object trying to get into the cell, and the street is the membrane of the cell. You use the battery to start the car, and once you’ve done that is moves across the road to take the passenger across the street and into the cell. It sounds very simple! Unfortunately, it isn’t quite that easy. Proteins can only take certain objects across the membrane – a protein that can take sugar across the membrane may not be able to take sodium across. This is also like cars: if the passenger can’t fit in the car, then you can’t use that car to get them across the street. These proteins could be cars, motorcycles, or big trucks. For active transport, the correct protein must match with the correct object, and have the right amount of energy, to cross the membrane. 

Passive transport is much easier. Instead of using a car, the object can just cross the street on its own because it is small and doesn’t need much energy to cross. However, passive transport can be broken down into a few different kinds of transport itself. These different kinds of passive transport are osmosis, diffusion, and facilitated diffusion. Osmosis is passive transport with water only – sometimes it is easier to move water through the membrane instead of objects, so osmosis is used. Diffusion is used for all objects that are moved into and out of a cell through the membrane. But what is facilitated diffusion? As mentioned before, objects that move passively through the membrane can get across on their own. But sometimes it is necessary for them to move faster. Facilitated diffusion uses proteins on a membrane to move these passive objects into and out of the cell more quickly. Think of this like an elderly person getting helped across the street so that they can cross before any cars start moving forward. 

Active and passive transport are both involved in something called the concentration gradient, which is how much of something is on either side of the membrane. If there is more sodium outside of the membrane than inside it, and you need more sodium inside, the sodium could just use passive transport to enter the cell. But if there’s more sodium outside the membrane, and you need to get even more sodium outside, then the sodium would have to go against the grain and use active transport instead. Therefore active transport requires energy – while passive transport goes with the flow, active transport goes against it. 

Top Six Functions of the Cell Wall

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A cell wall is a semi-permeable and rigid protective layer that is found next to the cell membrane. It is present in plant cells, bacteria, algae, and fungi. It is important to note that animal cells do not have a plasma membrane. This article emphasizes on the top functions of the cell membrane. 

1. Provide Mechanical Strength 

The cellulose cell wall is made of hard materials such as chitin and other hard components that ensure that it is a sturdy material. It derives its strength from cellulose microfibrils, hence allowing it to exert mechanical strength on the plant. It has a skeletal framework, which is not present in other cell membranes that help it to remain in a rigid and definite shape. 

Cell walls use this definite shape and the hard shells to provide mechanical strength to the plant. Cellulose cell walls are also hardened through lignifications, which is a process of adding lignin to the cell wall hence making it tough while at the same time giving it the structural strength of a woody plant. The strength and rigidity of the whole plant depend on the mechanical strength provided by the cell wall. 

2. Maintaining the Shape of the Cell 

Plant cells, which have cellulose cell walls have a definite shape, which is brought about by the presence of a cell wall. The hard outer shell does not become flaccid when the cell loses water. Mostly, lignin and pectin, which are the major components of the cell wall, maintain a rigid structure that allows the cell to maintain a definite shape. Only the isolated protoplast becomes flaccid after losing water. If plant cells were to lose shape, plants would fall. 

This explains why plant cells have to maintain a definite shape at any given time. It is essential to highlight that animal cells don’t have a distinct shape because they do not have a cell wall. Animal cells become flaccid every time they lose water and bulge after gaining water through osmosis. 

3. Controls Cell Expansion 

For growth to occur in plants, cell expansion is necessary. This happens at earlier stages of plant growth. However, growth and expansion of the cells is a controlled process which takes a more extended period. Cell walls are at the center of the cell growth and expansion. For a young plant, cell walls control turgor pressure from within and prevent any chances of cell bursting. This means that anytime the cells gain water, they will expand, but they will not burst. 

In a mature plant, growth and expansion are not necessary. Lignin is therefore added to the cell wall to prevent any expansion. Lignin makes the cell very hard such that it cannot succumb to the turgor pressure generated from within the cell. Maximum growth has been realized, which explains why growth is not needed. 

4. Controls Intracellular Transport 

Transport of important chemical materials has to take place between cells. However, the transfer of materials from one cell to the other is controlled by the cell wall. Very many substances are transported between the adjacent cells, and all have to pass through the cellulose cell wall. The cell wall allows the movement of the very small ions, molecules, and small protein. However, if the materials under transport are very big or are harmful, the cell wall forms a sieve, which prevents these materials from entering through the cell membrane. 

5. Acts as a Reservoir of Food 

Seeds contain a substantial amount of food that will support the seed during the germination process up to the time when it will start performing photosynthesis. In most cases, most of the food and other nutritional requirements are stored on the cell wall. Other foods form a significant proportion of the cell wall. This explains why the cell wall disappears several weeks after the seed germinates. 

6. Protection 

Protection is one of the primary functions of the cell wall and underlines its importance in plant cells. Fungi, bacteria, virus, and other pathogenic microorganisms will always try to attack the cells for food and other benefits. The cell wall triggers the necessary mechanisms to make sure that these organisms don’t get a chance to attack the cell membrane. Cellulose cell walls are known to have both passive and active defense mechanisms that prevent an attack against plant cells. 

The Eight Critical Functions of the Nucleus

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The nucleus is an essential organelle, which is found in eukaryotic cells. This crucial component of the eukaryotic cell carries the better part of the cell's genetic material. This material is organized as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules and a variety of proteins to form chromosomes, which are also known as "protein factories". So, what does the nucleus do? 

It should be noted that the nucleus plays more than one essential role in the body. These roles are described as follows: 

1. The Nucleus Controls an Organism's Heredity/Hereditary Characteristics 

In genetics, there is something known as "heredity". This is simply the characteristics we acquire from our parents or people close to us genetically. An example of heredity is to have a certain type of eyes or any other physical characteristic similar to one of your parent's or somebody in your family's. This is controlled by the nucleus. 

2. The Storage of Heredity Material In the Form of DNA strands 

Another important function of the nucleus is the storage of heredity material in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) strands. As if that were not enough, the organelle also stores proteins as well as ribonucleic acid (RNA). 

3. The Nucleus Maintains Cellular Metabolism 

In every living organism, there is a set of chemical reactions that take place to maintain life. These reactions are known as "Cellular metabolism". They entail complicated sequences of controlled biochemical reactions referred to as "metabolic pathways". 

Do you know what maintains these complex reactions? It is the very same nucleus, which does so by regulating the synthesis of certain enzymes that power cellular metabolism. 

4. The Nucleus Is In Charge of Cell Division/Growth/Differentiation and Protein Synthesis Processes 

What does the nucleus do apart from the above tasks? Well, the organelle is responsible for cell division/growth/differentiation and protein synthesis processes. All of these processes make sure living organisms are able to grow and develop successfully. 

 5. The Transcription Process Zone for RNA (mRNA) Messengers 

The nucleus provides an optimum environment for the transcription process in which the messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNA) are produced ahead of protein synthesis. For your information, protein synthesis is the process in which protein molecules are produced. 

6. The Exchange of Hereditary Materials Within the Cell 

Another important function of the nucleus is to take part in the exchange of heredity materials within the cell. The hereditary materials we are referring to here are deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid. 

7. The Production of Ribosomes 

The nucleolus also produces ribosomes, which are known as "protein factories". These are particles made up of RNA and associated proteins. Their primary tasks are to bind messenger ribonucleic acid and transfer ribonucleic acid to the sites for polypeptides and protein synthesis within the cell. 

8. The Regulation of the Integrity of Genes and Gene Expression 

Again, in genetics, there is something called "gene'' integrity. Living things of the same species generally have a shared genetic profile. Individual organisms in which this profile has not been tampered with are said to have genetic integrity. 

Then there is something else called "gene expression". This is simply the process by which information is taken from a gene and used in the production of a functional gene product. Functional gene products can be proteins, proteins, messenger RNA and small nuclear RNA genes. 

The final important function of the nucleus is to regulate the integrity of genes as well as gene expression. More of this information is covered in advanced genetic. Be sure to check out online sources if you wish to learn more about gene integrity and gene expression. 

Final Thoughts 

Now you know the functions of the nucleus and it is my hope that the next time you are asked to list them, you will pass the exam or assignment. In summary, the nucleus controls an organism's heredity/hereditary characteristics, stores heredity material in the form of DNA strands and maintains cellular metabolism. In addition, it remains in charge of cell division/growth/differentiation & protein synthesis processes and provides the optimum transcription process environment for RNA (mRNA) messengers. Finally, the nucleus helps with the exchange of hereditary materials within the cell, the production of ribosomes and the regulation of the integrity of genes and gene expression. 

The advantages of ribosomes

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Ribosomes are a cellular structure that produces proteins. Protein is essential for many cellular functions, like damage repair or chemical process management. The free ribosomes may be located inside the cytoplasm or join the endoplasmic network. 

The ribosomes of the cell determine the type of protein that it produces. If the ribosome floats freely throughout the cell, it will produce proteins that are used inside the cell. When ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic network, they are referred to as the rough endoplasmic network or coarse ER. The proteins made in crude RE are used for intracellular or extracellular use. 

The function of the ribosome is the synthesis of proteins according to the directions of the RNA messenger. The ribosomes help in making proteins with several features in the cell and may be located within the endoplasmic or cytoplasm. 

The cells of the body and other animal cells contain many components that work together to improve the well-being of the cell. Mitochondria, for example, provide our cells with the necessary amount of energy compounds to perform their various functions. The cell nucleus contains DNA that cells use when they need to use genes to make proteins and regulate multiple systems in the body, like growth. 

Among the different ingredients of our cell is the ribosome. Ribosomes are suitable for protein synthesis. They are located as free molecules in the whole cell both in primordial cells, like bacteria and in eukaryotic cells, like us. They can also be located linked to the thick endoplasmic network because the rough ER also helps in the production and movement of proteins. It was also found in green mitochondria and plastids. 

Structure of ribosomes 

Ribosomes are composed of ribosome RNA and ribosome proteins. The proportion between the two components varies, since the nuclei of the nuclei are approximately 40% protein and 60% rRNA, while the eukaryotes may be divided between the two. 

Human ribosomes and other eukaryotic nuclei consist of four strains of rRNA, while bacterial ribosomes comprised of three strands of rRNA. These ribosomal RNAs are associated with the proteins that make up the entire structure of the ribosome. In eukaryotes, ribosomes enter the nucleus and are treated with rRNA to form a large subunit ribosome and a small subunit ribosome. The core pores are sent and converge to form the completed ribosome. 

Origin of ribosomes. 

Given the common denominators of ribosomes among all living cells, it is logical that the ribosome is a familiar ancestor moment between various spheres of life. 

The researchers analyzed several ribosomes in various species, looked for a common nucleus in the structure of the ribosome and identified the oldest parts of the ribosome. It should be noted that the ribosomes were like trunks: they possess rings which show the age, deep in the trunk, the inner circle shows the oldest part of the tree. 

Initially, the ribosome contained the only RNA and did not contain proteins because life at that time did not use proteins. When the RNA branches become large, they form secondary structures that can develop functions. The ribosome may have been in a similar situation. Over time, with the development of proteins, ribosomes become more complex and adapt to more tasks until they become specialized protein processing machines as they are today. 

The transfer of ribosomes from the RNA compound to the RNA and the protein compound was the result of the ability of RNA to generate peptides with increasing complexity. What began as a process to convert DNA into RNA became so complicated that it allowed the creation of other compounds of this information, which turned out to be proteins. The proteins are necessary for many cellular working, such as repairing the directing or damage chemical processes. The free ribosomes may be found inside the cytoplasm or join the endoplasmic network. 

The ribosomes of the cell determine the type of protein that it produces. If the ribosome floats freely throughout the cell, it will produce proteins that are used inside the cell. When the ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic network, they are known as the thick endoplasmic network. The proteins that are produced in the grid use thick endoplasma for intracellular or extracellular use. 

Ribosomes – The Lego Builders!

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Proteins are a chemical that we use to make the body work – they are involved in the making of something called an enzyme. Enzymes make body processes go faster – like how you would eat food so you could run instead of walk. We can get these proteins from food – the best place to find a protein is in meats like pork and beef, or in eggs and nuts. But we also have something in the body that makes proteins called a ribosome. 

Ribosomes are called protein synthesizers, or protein builders. Ribosomes can be found floating around in a cell, or they can be attached to the ER – the Endoplasmic Reticulum. The ER is just folded up sacs or tubes outside of the nucleus, or center, of the cell. 

But how does all of this work? If you need a protein, how is it made? And what does a ribosome have to do with it? 

Here’s where it starts to get interesting. In order for the ribosome to help put the proteins together, you first need to have something called mRNA. mRNA is like your DNA, the thing that makes your eyes and hair a certain color, that can tell you how tall you are going to be or if you’ll write with your left hand or your right. mRNA is a copy of your DNA that got made by the nucleus, the center part of every cell. The nucleus is like a computer and the DNA is instructions on the computer. In the DNA is instructions for how to make proteins, and once that is copied and sent out of the nucleus, it becomes mRNA. 

Like a computer with an email, the nucleus sends the mRNA – and thereby the instructions to make a protein – to the ribosomes. Here’s where the ribosomes become builders! 

You are a ribosome, and the nucleus, your teacher, just gave you a sheet of paper showing you how to make a house out of the legos. The sheet of paper is your mRNA, and you use that to make the house of legos, which is your protein. You can’t start making the house of legos until your teacher hands out all the instructions, but once that’s done you can make your lego house. But making a lego house is a little simpler than making a protein. 

Your legos are now something called an amino acid. Amino acids are the “building blocks” of a full protein – the legos that make up your full house. Amino acids are different, just like legos are. Some of them are different sizes and shapes, meaning they can’t always fit together. In this case, let’s pretend that only legos of certain colors can go together to make the right kind of house. You must use the mRNA, your instruction sheet, to find out which color of lego goes with another color. You can put yellow legos with blue legos, but not with red legos, and so on. 

But there’s another kind of RNA in that your teacher has. This RNA is called transfer RNA, or tRNA. tRNA is what keeps your amino acids in order in your cell. For this example, the tRNA is the bucket that all of your legos are in. You, as the ribosome, have to take your instructions, the mRNA, and go to the lego bucket to pick out all the legos – or amino acids – that you need to make your protein house. Once you’ve gotten your instructions from your teacher, looked over all them to find out how to build and what you need to get, gone to the bucket to retrieve the right number of pieces that you need for building, and returned, you can finally build your protein house! Once you’ve finished your protein house, you can connect it with the protein house someone else made, and then keep adding protein houses in a long chain until you’ve finally made your full protein. 

It takes a lot of pieces and working parts to make a protein with a ribosome, but the end product is a working protein that your body uses to function. Even one little ribosome can make a big difference in your body. 

Lysosomes – the Vacuums of the Cell

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Enzymes are a type of protein that can speed up a chemical reaction in the body. While the body can still do the process without the enzyme, it may not be able to do it in time. Enzymes are responsible for many things, like digesting food and turning it into the energy that we can use for moving and living – this is called metabolism. Once ribosomes have created proteins and they’ve become enzymes, there has to be a place to hold them in the cell until they are needed for a body process. That’s where lysosomes come in. 

If we remember ribosomes, we know they are on the ER or the Endoplasmic Reticulum. Once the ribosomes on the ER have created their proteins, the proteins get packaged up and sent to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is similar to the ER in that it is a bunch of folded up membranes and sacs. The difference between them is that while the ER is involved with ribosomes, the Golgi apparatus is responsible for making lysosomes. Once the proteins get to the Golgi apparatus, it makes them fully into enzymes and sends them, through lysosomes, out into the cell to begin their work. 

Lysosomes are like suitcases in a cell – they use a membrane, or layer that some things can get into and others cannot, to hold enzymes so they can stay safely hidden away until the body needs them. Lysosomes are also a bit like garbage disposals – using the enzymes they hold inside their membrane, lysosomes break down food when it needs to be digested or unneeded parts of the body when they aren’t of use anymore. 

Lysosomes prevent dead or unnecessary parts of cells, or even entire cells, from taking up space and causing problems for the body. If ribosomes were the construction workers of a cell, then the lysosomes could be considered the cleanup crew that comes after them and cleans up all the messes. Using the enzymes that come from the proteins that are created by ribosomes, they can work on digesting food, organelles, and old cells in the body. This is their only job, and while it seems like a simple one, it is very important and very specific. Not just any enzyme, or any lysosome, can do the job because food is very different from an organelle, and organelles are different from whole cells. 

There are different kinds of lysosomes for different kinds of digestion because of this. Mainly, there are lysosomes that digest food that enters the cell, lysosomes that digest organelles – a special structure in a cell that can perform a specific function, like the Golgi apparatus or the ribosomes – that are no longer needed in a cell, and lysosomes that digest cells that are no longer needed in the body and have to be gotten rid of. The lysosome attaches to the thing that it needs to digest, drags it into the lysosome, and releases the enzymes inside of it to break down whatever object the lysosome attached to once it is fully inside. 

Lysosomes can do this digestion because of the membrane mentioned earlier. Let’s say that a lysosome is a vacuum. Some vacuums, like lysosomes, are bigger or smaller, with different attachments, for use in different areas of a house. In this case, the house is your cell, and the messes in the house are the things that the lysosomes must digest, with the lysosome being the vacuum. With a vacuum, only certain things can fit inside it. If you tried to use a vacuum to pick up a football, it wouldn’t fit! But it might be able to pick up a balled-up piece of paper. This is because the membrane of a lysosome only lets certain things in and out of it, and is only used for a certain job because of this feature. A hand-held vacuum wouldn’t be able to clean a whole house, after all, but it may be great for cleaning a single chair. 

If the way a lysosome works is still hard to understand, that’s okay. A lot of what the membrane does can be understood best by learning about active and passive transport, a lesson that will be coming to you very soon. 

Functions of Vacuole

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One of the most important things to learn about when studying biology is the building blocks of every organism. Every living thing has these building blocks, but some are more advanced than others. Some building blocks are also more important than others. These building blocks are known as cells. 

Animals and plants are both made of cells, that help the organism work properly. Each cell has different parts all responsible for different little jobs inside the cell. One of these is a vacuole. What does the vacuole do is a question, and here is the answer. 

The first time scientists discovered vacuoles was in 1700s but they thought of them as breathing organs. A century later a term 'vacuole' was born. It might seem like an insignificant discovery, but it gave biologists a better understanding about the structure of cells and the work they do. No longer considered respiratory organs or called 'stars', vacuoles claimed their rightful place in the cell structure. 

Food and Water for Survival 

To put it simply - vacuoles are little storage pockets inside the cells. They store nutrients that helps the cell to survive. They exist in plants, fungi and also in animal cells. There are vacuoles in the cells of bacteria and even protists (organisms that are not animals, plants or fungi). Since they are little pockets, vacuoles are sealed tight and have liquid inside of them. 

Water that has organic and inorganic particles, such as enzymes. Sometimes they can contain solid mass that has been absorbed by the vacuole. The little pockets are created of several membrane structures through the transport of materials to and from the cell. The organelle - vacuole in this case, doesn't have a set shape, since it depends on the way the cell itself is shaped.

A vacuole can have different functions depending on the type of cell it lives in. Plants and fungi have an upper hand where vacuole presence is concerned. 

In general terms vacuoles are responsible for: 

- Storing water in plant cells

- Storing waste products so they don't harm the cell

- Sending unnecessary substances out of the cell itself

- Separation and isolation of harmful materials

- Making sure the pH level stays acidic 

However, there are other responsibilities a vacuole has depending on the cell. For example, in seeds, the vacuoles change so they can keep the protein needed for a successful germination of the seed. 

Vacuoles works as scaffolding for leaves and flowers in plants. Without these little pockets the plants would look very different, and would not have the structure we know and recognize. 

Animals Vs. Plants 

Animal cells although similar, have differences in their structure and the work they accomplish. Vacuoles take a secondary role and mainly support larger processes. 

It simply means that the process we know as digestion happens at a cell level and not just on the bigger scale. Both solid foods (through phagocytosis or cell eating) and liquid food groups (through pinocytosis or cell drinking) get absorbed by the cell which then breaks the food down. 

The vacuoles are smaller in animal cells, but there are more of them. Some cells lack vacuoles altogether but it's just their design. Animal cells also have food vacuoles that contain enzymes for breaking down different food groups. 

Other Notable Processes 

Since vacuoles are responsible for storage, it is important to mention two processes that happen inside the cell. These processes are similar for plants and animals but in animals the processes are more complex. 

Exocytosis pushes the lipids and proteins from the cell itself. These lipids and proteins are then absorbed by other parts of the body. It means the cell also helps the transportation of the different nutrients as well as the waste that is now broken down and can then be excreted out of the body. 

The other process is endocytosis (taking in of matter) and it is the opposite of exocytosis (transporting matter out). Bacteria, dead tissue or other materials collide with the cell walls and the cell then absorbs them This way the material inside the cell breaks down slowly and doesn't harm the cell or the organism itself. 

Side Note - Salmonella 

Even though cells are pretty good at protecting the organisms, some pathogens evolve over time. Salmonella is one of these crafty little bacteria that can survive inside a vacuole despite its best efforts. It causes illness in humans, and can also be devastating to domestic animal farmers. The bacteria acquires genetic elements or simply - knowledge and understanding from different sources, and uses them to survive and adapt. This way whatever means the cell uses to protect itself fail. It's like fighting fire with fire. 

Salmonella is treated with medication in both humans and animals. For people one of the most important things is making sure the body is hydrated enough, and if the case is severe - there might be a call for a hospital stay. A dose of antibiotics is the administered as well as a course of anti-diarrhoea medication. 

Functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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INTRODUCTION 

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle. It is also called the smooth ER. This organelle is found in both plant and the animal cells. It is however absent in prokaryotic cells. Organelles are simply subunits of cells. They carry out some unique functions. 

This organelle is a network of membranes. These membranes have tubules and flattened sacs. In its interior, is a space called the lumen. It is found throughout the cell. A connection exists between it and the nucleus. It serves several purposes in the cell. We are going to examine some of them below. 

FUNCTIONS OF SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM 

The exact role of the smooth ER varies from cell to cell. The following are some of its main roles: 

Manufacturing and Packaging Cellular Products 

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum manufactures and packages cellular products. These are mostly lipids and hormones. Lipids form the structural component of cells. They do so in conjunction with carbohydrates and proteins. Its manufacture is hence great for the entire body. 

Hormones stimulate cells and tissues into action. They contain some ‘coded instructions’ in them. They prevent the body from getting mixed up. In most cases, they are transported via blood or sap. They come in different kinds and forms. This means they are suited for different functions. Your body cannot do without them. 

Transportation of Proteins and Carbohydrates 

They also transport carbohydrates and proteins. It relays them to the other organelles. Examples of these are plasma membrane, Golgi body, and lysosomes. These substances pass through their lumens. In so doing, they guarantee the smooth functioning of the cell. Any breakdowns in them may often cause certain issues. 

To do this role well, they require some energy. This energy is supplied by another organelle. The organelle is called a mitochondrion. This energy is called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Such transportation increases the efficiency of the cell. It also boosts the health of the body. 

Expedites Cellular Reactions 

Most chemical reactions occur in the cell. Yet again, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum expedites them. As stated, this organelle comprises some tubules. These tubules are located at the edge of the cell. They increase the surface area. This, in turn, improves the pace of reaction of the cell. 

Chances of producing poor outcomes are heavily suppressed. Instead, the cell enjoys better health and outcomes all the time. Apart from this, the tubules stores some key enzymes. These enzymes are used in future reactions. They mainly catalyze the reactions for greater outcomes. 

Formation of Nuclear Membranes 

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum forms nuclear membranes. This happens during cell division. The nuclear membrane encloses the contents of the nucleus. These include the nucleolus, DNA, and nucleoplasm, among others. This enclosure shields the contents from the cytoplasm. It hence preserves the integrity of the cell. 

Steroid Synthesis 

Steroids are substances in the body. They perform a range of functions. Mostly, they build muscles and add strength to the body. Examples are cholesterols, testosterone, progesterone, glycogen, and proteins. The smooth ER, yet again, produces them. It hence contributes to the proper functioning of the body. Also, it makes the bodybuilding exercise, a breeze. 

Attachment of Receptors 

Receptors are responsive cells. They can respond to heat, light, or external stimuli. They also transmit signals. For them to function, they have to be attached. In most cases, they are attached to cell membrane proteins. These are structures that constitute the cell membrane. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum performs this role, yet again. You hence become more responsive, when this organelle performs well. 

Coordinates Cellular Activities 

As stated, cells have numerous organelles. For these organelles to work well, they have to be coordinated. Failure to do so might often lead to chaos. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does this job well. It works hand in hand with most organelles. These include the Golgi apparatus, mRNA, ribosomes, and tRNA. In so doing, it prevents them from breaking down. 

Carbohydrate Metabolism 

It can also metabolize carbohydrates. This means breaking down carbohydrate to its constituent parts. The end result is some easier absorption. It is able to do so because it has some enzymes. These accelerate cellular reactions. It is these reactions that dismantle the carbohydrate building blocks. 

Regulates Calcium Concentration 

This organelle performs different roles in different cells. While in the muscles, it regulates the concentration of Calcium ion. Higher levels of calcium ion are not good for the muscles. It stiffens them and makes the immobile. Reduced levels allow the muscles to relax. It also tones them appropriately. 

Drug Detoxification 

Lastly, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum detoxifies the body. It breaks down some harmful drugs. Chief among these are the lipid-soluble drugs. Also, it diminishes some harmful compounds in the body. The organelle hence helps with addictions. At the same time, it shields your body from intoxication. 

CONCLUSION 

As you may see, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is great for your body. It plays many roles at a time. You have to thank it for most of your health benefits. Did you find this conversation helpful? Would you recommend it for a friend? Let us hear in the comment segment below… 

Function of the mitochondria

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The mitochondrion is an important organelle of both plants and animals cells. It is one of those organelles in a eukaryotic cell. Usually, the mitochondria are usually referred to as powerhouse to a cell because they produce energy in Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) form. Usually energy is produced during cellular respiration. Mitochondrion is made of two membranes: inner and outer, where chemical reactions occur and a matrix where some fluid is stored. This mitochondrion takes in nutrients from cells so as to break them down and release energy in turn. This energy in form of ATP is therefore used for carrying out several functions inside a cell. 

Different cells contain varied numbers of the mitochondria. This number is determined by the much energy that given cell mainly requires. If a cell needs more energy, it will definitely have more of the mitochondria. The cell is able to produce additional mitochondria if it needs more of them. As well, a cell can combine various mitochondria so as to come up with larger mitochondria. 

Mitochondria can be defined as the powerhouse a cell depends on. These are small kind of structures found inside the cell and are composed of a matrix and two membranes. The matrix is responsible for holding some fluid while the membranes allow occurrence of chemical reactions. Mitochondria form part of the eukaryotic cells. Majorly, the mitochondria in a cell are responsible of performing cellular respiration. What this means is that the powerhouse takes nutrients from that cell then breaks those nutrients down so as to produce energy. That energy is all what a cell needs so as to run its normal functions. 

Apart from production of energy, other functions of mitochondria include breaking down the harmful waste products to less harmful substances, producing chemicals that the body needs and also the recycling of some waste products. They also help in death of cells. This process is also known as apoptosis. Apoptosis is crucial for both growth and development to take place. The death of some cells ensures that cells do not replicate uncontrollably leading to cancers. This means that mitochondria are targets of the anti-cancer drugs. To convert the food substances to energy, mitochondria require oxygen, in a process called oxidative phosphorylation. 

The processes that work together to produce ATP in a mitochondrion are generally referred to as Kreb's cycle or else Citric Acid cycle (TCA). Before citric acid cycle begins, glycolysis happens inside outer membrane. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate. Cellular respiration or aerobic respiration in mitochondrion is dependent on oxygen. However, in some cells which mostly lack mitochondria, glycolytic products are usually metabolized in absence of oxygen, a process called anaerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration produces a low yield of ATP as compared to aerobic respiration. 

The two molecules of pyruvate and ATP produced by glycolysis enter inside inner membrane of a mitochondrion. For matrix, pyruvate molecules are either carboxylated to form oxaloacetate, an anaplerotic reaction, or those molecules can be oxidized to form carbon dioxide, acetyl-CoA, and NADH. From acetyl-CoA, various intermediates are produced and they include citrate, isocitrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, oxaloacetate and malate. The oxaloacetate then will combine with acetyl-CoA to for citric acid. Numbers of ATPs produced depends on which molecule starts. For instance, The number of ATPs produced by breaking down of glucose is not similar as that produced during fructose breakdown. 

TCA cycle oxidizes acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and other reduced co-factors which are NADH (three molecules) and FADH2 (one molecule). These reduced cofactors are used in following stage of ATP production in mitochondrion which is called electron transport chain. Electrons transport chain occurs in mitochondrial intermembrane space. The process involves transferring of electrons from donors to acceptors through redox reactions. The electron transfer is followed with transferring of protons across membranes. 

NADH and FADH2 are also produced during glycolysis and TCA cycle, but they produce energy during electron transport chain process. Important protein complexes exist inside mitochondrial inner membrane and they include NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone), cytochrome c reductase, and cytochrome c oxidase. These complexes are responsible for transfer of electrons and released energy is used to pump H+ protons into mitochondrial intermembrane space. 

An electrochemical gradient is created against inner membrane when number of protons increases. The protons then return to matrix and their energy is used to combine Adenosine triphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate to form ATP. Therefore, glycolysis, TCA cycle, and electron transport chain are processes that occur inside mitochondrion to produce energy for cell activities.